The Manhattan Project was surely one of the most controversial projects in the history of mankind. The deadly but promising potential of nuclear power was demonstrated through the Manhattan Project.
The early and mid-1900’s was surely the most important era for the development of physics that lead to an exponential growth of technology and science.
What important scientific discoveries contributed to the exponential advance of physics and what kind of history lead to the development of the Manhattan Project? Did you even know that Nazi Germany was almost two years ahead of the Manhattan Project?
Please view the below for the science of the Manhattan Project.
https://merriman-and-co.tistory.com/145 (Science and Physics of the Atomic Bomb)
1900 – Max Planck establishes the basis of ‘Quantum Physics’ – Discovery of Quanta (Quantum)
Quantum derives from the Latin ‘quantus’ which means ‘how much’. minimum amount of any physical entity (physical property) involved in an interaction.
Quantum Physics is considered the most important basis in modern physics. Max Planck would develop the concept of ‘quanta’ or’ quantum’.
The most important part of the concept of quanta is not the idea of ‘the smallest physical unit’ but that all physical quantities such as energy are always a natural integer amount of a ‘quanta’.
For example, an atom doesn’t have a natural integer number of protons and neutrons not quantities of 1.5 or 1.8 which aren’t integers.
If the concept of quanta wasn’t developed, scientists would have never been able to predict or calculate for example known atom numbers if they weren’t in the number of integers.
For example, there aren’t the concept of 1.5 neutrons or 2.8 protons in physics because each concept is a defined ‘quantum’.
Max Planck is also known to have encourage Albert Einstein’s work. People would joke that Max Planck’s second greatest discovery is Albert Einstein.
1905 – Albert Einstein – Annus Mirabilis – Einstein changes the world of Physics
The field of physics make a great leap in 1905 as Albert Einstein forms the theoretical basis of ‘Brownian Motion’, ‘Photoelectric Effect’, and ‘The Special Theory of Relativity’.
Annus Mirabilis refers to ‘Miraculous Year’ in Latin. Along with Quantum Physics, Albert Einstein’s theories form the basis of applied physics and broke the limits of the classic Isacc Newton Physics.
*Physicists claim that quantum physics was the most astonishing field in the development of modern physics. Einstein’s theories do have a substantial impact but rather his theories are more known by the general public.
*This didn’t necessarily mean the end of Newton Physics. These still from essential parts of understanding the universe and physics
*The Major papers published by Albert Einstein
On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat
>> This paper somewhat proven parts of the theoretical Brownian Motion
>> This paper in short, have formed the theoretical basis of studies in ‘atoms. Atoms weren’t studied and proven yet.
On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light –
>> Photoelectric Effect was emphasized
>> This formed a firmer basis for the wave-particle duality of light. In other words, light has properties of both as energy and as a particle.
On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies
>>The Special Theory of Relativity was founded on this paper.
>> Theory of Relativity and ‘Special Theory of Relativity’ need to be strictly distinguished.
Albert Einstein shows that the speed of light is always constant regardless of the observer’s motion. He also theorizes that space could contract and time could dilate if an object could travel at the speed of light.
>> Think of when you are in a fast car on the high way, if you look out the window another car seems not to have much difference in speed, however if you weren’t in the car and standing by the side walk and observe the other car, it would be very fast.
However, for light in vaccum, regardless of how your motion state is, the speed of light in vaccum is constant.
Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon its Energy Content?
>> The famous E=mc2 is stated in this paper. This paper theorizes that energy could be converted to mass while mass could also convert to energy.
>> As studies fixed the speed of light based on these theories, later on a meter is defined as the length that light travels in vacuum condition in 1/299 792 458 seconds.
1908 – Ernest Rutherford establishes the basis of radioactivity
Ernest Rutherford is rewarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 for “his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances”.
Sir Rutherford discovers ‘Alpha Decay’ and ‘Beta Decay’ which are also known as alpha radiation and beta radiation respectively.
Ernest Rutherford shows that ‘elements could transform into different elements as a result of radiation’.
1913 – Niels Bohr suggests the atomic model also known as the Bohr Model
Neils Bohr would publish his first atomic structure also known as the Bohr Model. He formed the basis of the structure of atoms and would later contribute to the Manhattan Project himself.
Based on the idea of quanta, Neils Bohr established the Bohr Model that could explain why the electron energy spectrum of Hydrogen and other elements aren't consecutive.
Niels Bohr figured that each atom would have a different electron shell with a different energy level. Niels Bohr discovered even though the energy spectrum during a release or gain of electron is not consecutive, the energy could be calculated as quanta, thus in multiples of integer forms such as each electron shell energy level x number of electron per each shell.
Although the Bohr Model could only explain the energy spectrum of Hydrogen in reality, the concept of Orbital was discovered that could complement the real-life atom.
The Bohr Model and Neils Bohr would along with Max Planck’s concept of quanta form the foundation of quantum physics and become the main theoretical basis for all physicists including those who participated in the Manhattan Project.
1925 – Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Pascual Jordan develop Matrix Mechanics
Werner Heisenberg who is one of the prominent members for the establishment of the Copenhagen Interpretation and the father of the Uncertainty Principle along with Max Born and Pascual Jordan would form the first logically consistent series of formulas and equations of quantum mechanics.
1926 – Erwin Schrödinger invents the wave mechanics
“Quantisierung als Eigenwertproblem” (Quantization as an Eigenvalue Problem. Erwin Erwin Schrödinger publishes which features the famous Schrödinger Equation. Max Born added up to the Schrödinger’s wave function interpretation.
1927 – Quantum Physics/Quantum Theory is established / 5th Solvay Conference on Physics 24~27 October 1927
The International Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry which was founded by Ernest Solvay (Ernest Solvay developed the Solvay Process that makes carbonated beverages).
The 5th Solvay Conference on Physics focused on photons and electrons as their main subject.
However, Quantum Physics and Quantum Theory started to become the main stream of the field of Physics through this Solvay Conference.
This conference would also be nicknamed as the meeting of the smartest people on the planet as about half of the members would be awarded the Nobel Prize.
Back: Auguste Piccard, Émile Henriot, Paul Ehrenfest, Édouard Herzen, Théophile de Donder, Erwin Schrödinger, JE Verschaffelt, Wolfgang Pauli, Werner Heisenberg, Ralph Fowler, Léon Brillouin.
Middle: Peter Debye, Martin Knudsen, William Lawrence Bragg, Hendrik Anthony Kramers, Paul Dirac, Arthur Compton, Louis de Broglie, Max Born, Niels Bohr.
Front: Irving Langmuir, Max Planck, Marie Curie, Hendrik Lorentz, Albert Einstein, Paul Langevin, Charles-Eugène Guye, CTR Wilson, Owen Richardson.
1933 – Adolf Hitler becomes the chancellor of Germany – Refuge of scientists begin.
Scientists such as Albert Einstein, Hans Bethe, John von Neumann, Leo Szilard, James Franck, Edward Teller, Rudolf Peierls, and Klaus Fuchs. Enrico Fermi(Fermi’s wife Laura was Jewish) would flee from Fascist occupied nations around the year 1933.
1933 was a turning point in Europe as Adolf Hitler is appointed chancellor of Germany. Already fascism grew to a massive extent and gained power in Europe along with antisemitism and some degree of anti-intellectualism that would force many Jewish scientist or other origin of race scientists out from Germany, Italy and etc. Ironically these scientists help play a crucial part in the Manhattan Project.
Even though the Manhattan Project itself didn’t have much to do with the European Theater during World War 2, it would have been terrifying if these scientists remained and contributed to the Axis Forces.
1933 – Leo Szilard discovers nuclear chain reaction
Leo Szialrd would discover the nuclear chain reaction before nuclear fission was even discovered. Leo Szilard was able to develop the idea of nuclear chain reaction as he realized that neutrons could induce any kind of nuclear reaction that could produce energy.
Nuclear Chain Reaction in brief
The nuclear chain reaction is a consecutive series of self-initiating series of nuclear fission caused by a nuclear fissile material.
For a nuclear chain reaction, the material must have a certain molecular weight and able to emit free neutrons up to a certain amount of concentration.
The free neutrons would cause the series of nuclear fission as it would collide with the nucleus of other isotopes. This would trigger a ‘chain reaction’ and emit immense energy.
1938 – Enrico Fermi wins the Nobel Prize and becomes the most notable person in neutron irradiation.
In general public, Enrico Fermi may be famous for the Fermi Paradox which states “Aliens, Where are they”. However, Enrico Fermi was substantial in terms of nuclear physics as he was the most notable expert in neutron bombardment in other words neutron collision which was crucial in inducing nuclear fission and nuclear chain reaction.
Enrico Fermi wins the Nobel Prize in recognition of “existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons"
1938 Winter – German chemist Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discover nuclear fission
German chemist Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovers ‘Nuclear Fission’. Nuclear Fission refers to the splitting of atoms and the chemists named this phenomenon after biological fission also known as cell division.
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann states the possibility of nuclear chain reaction. Leo Szilard already discovered nuclear chain reaction without prior knowledge of nuclear fission in 1933.
Nuclear Fission in brief
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a nucleus of an atom into fragments of nuclei, neutrons and energy. Nuclear fission could be induced by collision of high velocity neutrons that would collide with the atom of target and fragment the nucleus of the atom.
For atoms with heavy nucleus with many protons and neutrons, such collision would induce massive electromagnetic radiation, kinetic energy and heat energy.
Often times the energy releases gamma photons, so it accompanies much of gamma radiation release as well. (Gamma decay). Some nuclear reactors collide high velocity neutrons to the target material to cause such nuclear fission.
1939 Spring – German’s first project for nuclear weapon development
The Reichserziehungsministerium(Reich Ministry of Science, Education and Culture) German government sponsors the first Uranium Club known as ‘Uranverein’.(This is an unofficial term) and recruit scientists such as Werner Heisenberg, Max von Laue and Otto Hahn to examine potential of nuclear energy for military application. This project was disbanded as the scientists were sent out for military training.
1939 Summer – Einstein-Szilard Letter warns FDR: Roots of the Manhattan Project
Early in 1939, Niels Bohr would inform Leo Szilard of Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman’s discovery in nuclear fission. Leo Szilard realizes that Uranium could be capable of causing a nuclear chain reaction and realizes the potential and danger of nuclear chain reaction of uranium.
Leo Szilard starts work with scientists such as Walter Zinn and Semyon Krewer. He later on persuades Enrico Fermi and Herbert L. Anderson on establishing much larger scales of uranium nuclear chain reaction experiments.
Leo Szilard drafts a letter to the 32nd president of the United States of America Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Leo Szilard’s letter was sponsored by Albert Einstein.
This letter was referred as the Einstein-Szilard Letter. The Einstein-Szilard Letters warns the potential of nuclear chain reaction as a weapon and encourages development of a research program. This becomes the start of the Manhattan Project.
1939 Autumn / Fall – The 3rd Reich invades Poland.
German forces invade Poland after the manipulated Gleiwitz radio station incident. The Soviet Union also invades Poland about two weeks later. Great Britain and France would declare war on Germany.
The Manhattan Project is now inevitable!
“Research Guides: Annus Mirabilis of Albert Einstein: The 1905 Papers.” The 1905 Papers - Annus Mirabilis of Albert Einstein - Research Guides at Library of Congress, guides.loc.gov/einstein-annus-mirabilis/1905-papers. Accessed 22 July 2023.
“The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1908.” NobelPrize.Org, www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1908/rutherford/facts/. Accessed 13 Aug. 2023.
“Scientist Refugees and the Manhattan Project.” Nuclear Museum, ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/scientist-refugees-and-manhattan-project/. Accessed 14 Aug. 2023.
“The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938.” NobelPrize.Org, www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1938/summary/. Accessed 14 Aug. 2023.
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